Cause of Bronchitis and Tests Done To Determine It

Cause of Bronchitis and Tests Done To Determine It The most common disease associated with respiratory system is bronchitis. It is often accompanied by a cold or flu and affects people regardless of age. If your immune system is weak or you are a chain smoker, then you are greatly exposed to develop chronic bronchitis. In few cases, developing asthmatic bronchitis is also possible. Smoking is considered to be a serious cause of bronchitis which can lead to other complications like pneumonia. The substances found in cigarettes as well other tobacco causes bronchial tubes irritation. Environmental pollution and exposures to chemicals can also lead to developing chronic bronchitis. In addition, second-hand smokes as shown in some studies can also cause chronic bronchitis. Mostly, chronic bronchitis is diagnosed among metal molders, grain handlers, coal miners, and other dust-related occupation. Symptoms of chronic bronchitis worsen if air pollutants and sulfur dioxide also increases. However, bronchitis is brought about by viruses. Within a few days, these viruses may disappear without medications. If bacteria is the cause of bronchitis, then antibiotics is needed to completely overcome it. Bronchitis can either be chronic or acute. Acute bronchitis generates extreme symptoms. It normally clears up immediately if viruses caused it. Chronic bronchitis produces milder symptoms but later on can aggravate. This is often persistent with recidivating character. Chronic bronchitis requires continuous treatment to prevent symptoms from recurring. Bronchitis manifests different symptoms including coughs, breath shortness, soreness, discomfort, excessive mucus production, headache, wheezing, chest pain, and fever. Fever is present due to bacteria infections posing any possible complications. Among the COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases) illnesses, bronchitis mostly affects more people. And despite its large affected population, it is usually misdiagnosed. Insufficient clinical examination can misinterpret bronchitis with allergies, asthma, and sinusitis. The doctor will ask your medical background which includes pervious and recent smoking habits. Your endurance is also questioned whether or not it is easy for you to climb stairs or walk a long distance. Using a stethoscope, the doctor will examine your chest and back and listen to your normal breathing. In this way, signs of bronchitis can be determined. However, the best way to confirm the presence and seriousness of bronchitis is to undergo PFT or pulmonary function tests. Keep in mind that these tests can be done if causes are known. It includes: Spirometry. An instrument called spirometer is utilized to measure the air inhaled and exhaled from your lungs. Air volumes are measured to determine the ability of your lungs to hold and exhale air. Peak flow meter. It measures the PEFR (peak expiratory flow rate). PEFR is the maximum quantity of air that you can exhale upon forced exhalation. Chest x-ray. This is suggested by a doctor to know if pneumonia problems are present. Mild x-ray changes can be a sign of chronic bronchitis. ABG (arterial blood gas) test. This determines the amount of carbon dioxide and oxygen in your blood. A blood is drawn from your artery. The procedure can make you very uncomfortable. Analysis of your blood gas is useful if oxygen therapy can be advised in case your blood oxygen is very low. Additional tests are necessary if other problems related to your health are involved. If infections are present, sputum and blood tests as well as cultures are conducted to determine the causes of infections. There are different factors when considering treatments for bronchitis. If it is not caused by bacteria, unblocking the obstruction from the airways is done. Medical treatments inhaled medications helpful in unblocking the air passages of your respiratory tract. Bronchodilators are widely used for asthmatic bronchitis and chronic bronchitis.

Relative Rates of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions Lab Report - 1

Relative Rates of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions - Lab Report Example In SN2 mechanisms, primary alkyl halides reacted faster than tertiary ones while in SN1 mechanism the tertiary alkyl halides reacted faster than primary ones. It was concluded that aprotic, polar solvents favoured SN2 reactions while SN1 reactions were favoured by protic, polar solvents. Nucleophilic substitution reactions occur by two major pathways namely SN1 and the SN2 reactions (McMurry 228). In all nucleophilic substitution reactions, the nucleophile (Nu:-) reacts with the substrate (R-X) and substitutes it for a leaving group (X:-) yielding the product R-Nu. For a neutral nucleophile (Nu:), the product is positively charged for charge conservation while for a negatively charged nucleophile (Nu:-), the product is neutral (McMurry 228). In SN2, which stands for substitution nucleophilic bimolecular, the alkyl halide and the nucleophile are involved at the transition state (Carey 306). Bond formation between carbon and the nucleophile aids in cleavage of the bond between carbon and the leaving group. In the changeover position, the carbon atom is partially bonded to the leaving group and the incoming nucleophile (Carey 307). Since the nucleophile attacks the substrate from the side that is opposite the bond to the leaving group, the mechanism leads to the inversion of configuration in the resultant product. Different rates are observed when methyl, primary, secondary and tertiary alkyl halides undergo nucleophilic substitution in SN2 (Carey 310). The rate is faster in methyl halides than in tertiary halides due to steric hindrance offered to the nucleophilic attack by the tertiary halides. In most SN2 reactions, the leaving group is expelled with a negative charge. Therefore, the best leaving groups are those that produce the most stables anions (McMurry 233). Among the halides, I- ion is the most reactive while F- ion is the least reactive. Most aprotic polar solvents cause the solvation of the metal counterion that is

Consumer Decision-Making Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Consumer Decision-Making Process - Essay Example This necessity or want could be triggered by wanting to satisfy a need which arises due to internal stimuli, such as thirst, hunger, etc. (Anonymous). This need can also be sparked by external stimuli such as advertisements, or when your friend buys a new car or a new pair of shoes. At this stage, online marketers should make effective use of the internet to stimulate recognition of this need (Philip Kotler, 2009). They generally start off by collecting information from consumers, about their lifestyles, the products they use, important events in their lives, through online surveys and questionnaires. In the internet world, customers tend to search for pages that they want to browse through. Marketers use the traditional method of using banners and ads to attract customers. Some even use pop-up sites to get the consumer’s attention. A study conducted by IIfeld and Winer showed that about 88 internet companies got frequent hits online due to banner advertising (Limbada, 2006). Online Companies such as amazon.com and easyjet.com use this technique effectively. Not only does it use animated banners and images, Amazon displays links such as â€Å"what customers are looking for† and â€Å"best-sellers†, which could arouse a certain need in the customer. Another need recognition technique could include responding to keywords on search engines. When a customer types a keyword such as ‘airline’ on google.com, Emirates or Air Canada are usually the first two options that appear on the search list. This search list order could be a vital technique for marketing. If the customer initially wanted to travel via Qatar Airways, but the search list brought Emirates on the top, the customer could decide to Emirates instead. Discussion blogs in newsgroups etc. could also help catch the eye of the consumer. Information Search begins once a consumer has identified his need. There are various ways to search for information regarding the product tha t the consumer wants to purchase. By searching, he can find out all his options, the various brands that are available, the different prices, design, etc. (Krishnamurthy, 2006).The extensiveness of this search depends upon how valuable this product is. If, for example, the customer wants a camera, he will research more rigorously about the various alternatives that are available. This way the customer gathers a whole bank of information and companies such as auto trader help direct the customer towards the choice the suits him the most.